Academia
Antigens and Immunoglobulins
An antigen is any foreign substance, of whatever origin, that is capable of initiating the production of a specific blood protein called an immunoglobulin (e.g., Ig) that will act against it. The Igs so formed will react specifically with that particular antigen, neutralizing its biological effect. Thus antigens are sometimes ... Read More
Effects of pKa on the Biological Properties of Ionizable Drugs
Acidic drugs (e.g. aspirin) are generally more highly bound to plasma albumin, giving a lower volume of distribution, i.e. they tend to stay in the plasma rather than distribute to the tissues. Basic drugs (including many CNS-acting agents such as phenothiazines) are theoretically more prone to binding to acid glycoprotein, ... Read More
Gluconeogenesis | Formation of Carbohydrates
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway of glucose formation from amino acids and the glycerol portion of fat. About 60 percent of the amino acids in the body proteins can be converted easily into carbohydrates; the remaining 40 percent have chemical configurations that make this difficult or impossible. Each amino acid ... Read More
Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract
The gastrointestinal tract stretches from the mouth to the anus and consists of our main anatomical areas; the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine and the large intestine or colon. The wall of the gastrointestinal tract is essentially similar in structure along its length, consisting of our principal histological layers: ... Read More
Physiological Factors Influencing Oral Drug Absorption
The gastrointestinal tract is complex. Figure 1 outlines some of the main structures involved in and key physiological parameters that affect oral drug absorption. In order to gain an insight into the numerous actors that can potentially influence the rate and extent of drug absorption into the systemic circulation, a ... Read More
Synaptic Transmitters | Rapidly Acting and Slowly Acting
There are more than 50 chemical substances have been proved or postulated to function as synaptic transmitters. Many of them are listed in below, which give two groups of synaptic transmitters. One group comprises small-molecule, rapidly acting transmitters. The other is made up of a large number of neuropeptides of ... Read More
Basics of Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic transmission is a key process whereby presynaptic neurotransmitter release drives electrical and biochemical signals via opening of postsynaptic channels. 7 Steps of Synaptic Transmission Step 1: An action potential arrives at the axon terminal Step 2: Membrane depolarization from action potential causes influx of calcium ions Step 3: Docking ... Read More
Humoral Control of the Circulation
Humoral control of the circulation means control by substances secreted or absorbed into the body fluids- such as hormones and locally produced factors. Among the most important of the humoral factors that affect circulatory function are the following: Vasoconstrictor Agents Norepinephrine and Epinephrine: Norepinephrine is an especially powerful vasoconstrictor hormone; ... Read More
Physicochemical Properties of Drugs
Physicochemical properties are all the physical and chemical properties of a drug, which are influence the drug performance or action. Various Physico-Chemical Properties of Drugs Thermodynamic properties Kinetic properties Spectroscopic properties Surface properties Mechanical properties Packing properties If a deficiency is detected, then the project team should decide on the ... Read More
Computer Aided Drug Design (CADD)
Computer Aided Drug Design (CADD) has now become an indispensable tool in the long process of drug discovery and development. It includes finding, developing and analyzing medicines and related biological active compounds by computer methodologies. The reliability of the mathematical methods used to obtain and solve the equations is well ... Read More