Oral delivery is the most common route of administration for drug products. Pharmaceutical solid oral drug products include but are not limited to capsules, tablets, granules, and powders.
Capsules
Capsules are solid dosage forms in which the drug substance and/or excipients are enclosed within a soluble container or shell or coated on the capsule shell. The shells may be composed of two pieces (a body and a cap), or they may be composed of a single piece. Two-piece capsules are commonly referred to as hard-shell capsules, and one-piece capsules are often referred to as soft-shell capsules.
The shells of capsules are usually made from gelatin. However, they also may be made from cellulose polymers (e.g., Hypromellose) or other suitable material. Most capsules are designed for oral administration. When no deliberate effort has been made to modify the drug substance release rate, capsules are referred to as immediate-release.
Modified-release capsules
The release of drug substance(s) from capsules can be modified in several ways. Two categories of modified-release capsule formulations are recognized by USP.
Delayed-release capsules: Capsules are sometimes formulated to include enteric-coated granules to protect acid-labile drug substances from the gastric environment or to prevent adverse events such as irritation. Enteric-coated multi-particulate capsule dosage forms may reduce variability in bioavailability associated with gastric emptying times for larger particles (i.e., tablets) and may minimize the likelihood of a therapeutic failure when coating defects occur during manufacturing. Alternatively, a coating may be applied to the capsule shell to achieve delayed release of the contents.
Extended-release capsules: Extended-release capsules are formulated in such a manner as to make the contained drug substance available over an extended period of time following ingestion. Requirements for dissolution are typically specified in the individual monograph.
Tablets
Tablets are most common solid dosage forms in which the drug substance is generally blended with excipients and compressed into the final dosage. Tablets are the most widely used dosage form in the world.
Tablet presses use steel punches and dies to prepare compacted tablets by the application of high pressures to powder blends or granulations. Tablets can be produced in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and surface markings.
Different Types of Tablets
Buccal tablets
Intended to be inserted in the buccal pouch, where the drug substance is absorbed directly through the oral mucosa. Few drug substances are readily absorbed in this way (examples are nitroglycerin and certain steroid hormones).
Chewable tablets
Formulated and manufactured to produce a pleasant-tasting residue in the mouth and to facilitate swallowing. Hard chewable tablets are typically prepared by compaction, usually utilizing mannitol, sorbitol, or sucrose as binders and fillers, and contain colors and flavors to enhance their appearance and taste. Soft chewable tablets are typically made by a molding or extrusion process, frequently with more than 10% water to help maintain a pliable, soft product.
Effervescent tablets
Prepared by compaction and contain, in addition to the drug substance(s), mixtures of acids (e.g., citric acid or tartaric acid) and carbonates, and/or sodium bicarbonate. Upon contact with water, these formulations release carbon dioxide, producing the characteristic effervescent action.
Hypodermic tablets
Molded tablets made from completely and readily water-soluble ingredients; formerly intended for use in making preparations for hypodermic injection. They may be administered orally or sublingually when rapid drug substance availability is required.
Modified-release tablets
Two categories of modified-release tablet formulations are recognized by USP.
Delayed-release tablets: Tablets are sometimes formulated with acid-resistant or enteric (also called “gastro-resistant”) coatings to protect acid-labile drug substances from the gastric environment or to prevent adverse events such as irritation.
Extended-release tablets: Extended-release tablets are formulated in such a manner as to make the drug substance available over an extended period of time following ingestion. Requirements for dissolution are typically specified in the individual monographs.
Orally disintegrating tablets
Orally disintegrating tablets are intended to disintegrate rapidly within the mouth to provide a dispersion before the patient swallows the resulting slurry where the drug substance is intended for gastrointestinal delivery and/or absorption. Some of these dosage forms have been formulated to facilitate rapid disintegration and are manufactured by conventional means or by using lyophilization or molding processes. Further details may be found in the CDER Guidance for Industry: Orally Disintegrating Tablets.
Sublingual tablets
Sublingual tablets are intended to be inserted beneath the tongue, where the drug substance is absorbed directly through the oral mucosa. As with buccal tablets, few drug substances are extensively absorbed in this way, and much of the drug substance is swallowed and is available for gastrointestinal absorption.
Tablets for oral solution
Before administration, tablets for oral solution are intended to be solubilized in a liquid diluent. In some cases, tablets for oral solution also may be chewed or swallowed.
Tablets for oral suspension
Tablets for oral suspension are intended to be dispersed in a liquid before administration as a suspension. The dosage form is tablets for oral suspension when either the drug substance or the excipients do not dissolve when dispersed in a liquid. In some cases, tablets for oral suspension also may be chewed or swallowed.
Tablet triturates
Small, usually cylindrical, molded or compacted tablets. Tablet triturates traditionally were used as dispensing tablets in order to provide a convenient, measured quantity of a potent drug substance for compounding purposes, but they are rarely used today.
Granules
Granules are solid dosage forms that are composed of agglomerations of smaller particles. These multicomponent compositions are prepared for oral administration and are used to facilitate flexible dosing regimens as granules or as suspensions, address stability challenges, allow taste masking, or facilitate flexibility in administration (for instance, to pediatric patients, geriatric patients, or animals).
Granular dosage forms may be formulated for direct oral administration and may facilitate compounding of multiple drug substances by allowing compounding pharmacists to blend various granular compositions in the retail or hospital pharmacy. More commonly, granules are reconstituted to a suspension by the addition of water or a supplied liquid diluent immediately prior to delivery to the patient.
Effervescent granules are formulated to liberate gas (carbon dioxide) upon addition of water. Common examples of effervescent granules include antacid and potassium supplementation preparations. Common therapeutic classes formulated as granule dosage forms include antibiotics, certain laxatives (such as senna extract products), electrolytes, and various cough and cold remedies that contain multiple drug substances.
Powders
Powders are defined as a single solid or a mixture of solids in a finely divided state. Powders used as pharmaceutical dosage forms may contain one or more drug substances and can be used as is or can be mixed with a suitable vehicle for administration.
Powders can be intended for internal or external use. Powders for external use are typically dusted onto the skin or applied to bandages or clothing. Powders for internal use can be applied to accessible mucous membranes with suitable applicators or are entrained in air streams for application to the nose or lungs.
The performance of powder dosage forms can be affected by the physical characteristics of the powder. Selection of relevant and appropriate powder characteristics depends on the dosage form and its route of administration. For example, particle size can influence the dissolution rate of the particles and thus the bioavailability and/or effectiveness at the site of action.
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Reference Book: Ansel’s Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms